These gradients were also corroborated by the presence of human activities related to nutrient loading and habitat alteration (Table 1) and underwater images (Fig. Decades of work have helped reverse those losses. Cumulative regional webs are NB, PEI, NS, Atlantic. Since oceanic nutrients can vary over large spatial scales [19] an important next empirical step is to consider how interactions such as those within Zostera marina food webs could change at larger scales. SIMPER identified eight food-web properties as contributing the greatest to these differences (Fig. No, Is the Subject Area "Estuaries" applicable to this article? 2008, Baden et al. Rapidly growing seagrass leaves provide food for trophically higher organisms via direct herbivory or from the detrital food web; the canopy structure formed by these leaves offers shelter and protection. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MC AS TR HKL. Ulothrix speciosa), polychaetes (Spirorbis spp. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.s003. Seagrasses form extensive underwater meadows that support diverse and complex communities, occur on all continents except Antarctica [1], [2], and are valued as one of the most important marine ecosystems [3] because they provide essential functions and services [1], [4], [5]. Also, ChLen, %Can, VulSD, and %Omn were lower and Path higher in the Atlantic compared to regional webs. They spread by two methods: asexual clonal growth and sexual reproduction. Secondary Consumers. Seagrass beds abound with marine life, so it's critically important that we protect the seagrasses that grow in Scottish waters. During the day, we identified all sessile benthic and epiphytic fauna and flora as well as small, slow-moving, and cryptic macrofauna using 11 quadrats (50×50cm) placed every 5 m along the transect line. If significant differences occurred, a univariate PERMANOVA was conducted for individual food-web properties. growth of seagrass (Moksnes et al. However, we also observed changes in food-web structure with increasing human impacts in both NB and PEI, although the responses were not always consistent between the two regions (see the discussion below). No, Is the Subject Area "Canada" applicable to this article? “Food Web Analysis of Meiobenthos in Estuarine Seagrass Bed.” In Meiofauna, 15th International Conference, Abstracts, 83–83. Our results showed that 75% of all properties in site-specific food webs in PEI followed the expected trend of degradation compared to only 43% in NB, however these ratios differed for cumulative webs (69% in NB, 50% in PEI). This kind of chain reaction in a food web is known to ecologists as a "trophic cascade." Results of a Principal Component Analysis (scores of PC axis 1, explaining >50% or variance, Methods S1) indicated a clear impact gradient within each block. In NB and PEI, sites were allocated to a block and arrayed along a gradient of human impacts associated with eutrophication (Low, Medium, High), while in NS all sites exhibited low impact levels (Fig. Overall, our temperate seagrass food webs were similar to a tropical seagrass food web, yet different from other aquatic webs, suggesting that seagrass ecosystems may differ structurally from other aquatic webs. We recorded four invasive species: green crab (Carcinus maenas), oyster drill (Urosalpinx cinerea), green fleece (Codium fragile spp. While fertilizers directly enhance nutrient loading, pesticides can have severe effects on immune and reproductive systems and growth and production of marine biota [39]. We removed one of each pair of properties that were significantly correlated (ρ≥0.85); thereby reducing redundancy in and dimensionality of the data. More information on the sites and how they are managed can be found at NatureScot’s Sitelink and on the Marine Scotland web pages for some sites. The project's main goal is to leverage a critical understanding of different visualization methods, across a series of disciplines, as diverse as Biology, Social Networks or the World Wide Web. ��fu7�e9��� �UY�Y�;����S����gY���~�V��V�l��Iʒ}�vY��VL�����ﱷO���cz������⛘�pZ��0��q��i��a�E~������>�|���=;��p[��. For the food-web construction, we obtained species- and region-specific diet information from the literature (Methods S3). Study sites by region, block and eutrophication level. 0000006266 00000 n Seagrass beds provide important habitat for a wide range of marine species but are threatened by multiple human impacts in coastal waters. Globally, eelgrass beds are subject to natural and anthropogenic impacts that have caused declines, and in some cases, local extinction [6], [8]. Overall, the temperate and St Mark's estuary seagrass webs were characterized by lower fractions of %Omn and %I, a higher fraction of %T, and lower C relative to the other aquatic webs. Presence (+) or absence (−) is shown for each site for Low/Medium/High impacted sites in each block (1–4) for NB and PEI, and for each site Taylor Head Provincial Park/False Passage/Musquodoboit Harbour/Franks George in NS (a single sign is used when records were the same in all sites). In NB, S, SWTL, MaxTL, and the trophic path length (Path) decreased from low to high eutrophication, while %I, the fraction of herbivore species (%H), and the generality (or number of prey per species, GenSD) increased. 1a, respectively). However, this limitation is consistent to all our models and does not impact our results which follow a comparative approach. 5). In PEI, S, %T, SWTL, MaxTL, the mean short-weighted chain length (ChLen), Path, and the fractions of omnivory (%Omn) and cannibalism (%Can) decreased as well, while %I, %H, the fraction of basal species (%B), and GenSD increased from low to high eutrophication. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591. Understanding these changes is essential for the proper protection and management of coastal ecosystems. Vafeiadou, Anna-Maria, Patrick Materatski, Helena Adão, Marleen De Troch, and Tom Moens. Electra pilosa, Membranipora membranacea). Eelgrass, Zostera marina, is the most widely distributed seagrass species in the world and dominates coastal and estuarine habitats of the temperate North Atlantic, including Atlantic Canada [5], [7]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.t002. Yes These differences are mainly driven by changes in the number of trophic groups that occur at each site and their ecological roles, as well as by the uncertainty of the data and sampling limitations. SIMPER analysis (Fig. Higher food-web degradation in PEI may reflect the high impact of farming (mostly potato), with associated high loads of fertilizers and pesticides that partially end up in estuaries ([41], Table 1). Canton Creek), and lentic (e.g. However, they generally receive little protection even if they are key habitats. Eelgrass - Zostera Marina. The MDS analysis used random starting configurations and 1000 runs with real data. VulSD did not follow the predicted decrease in both regions. Polysiphonia spp. Data were first √-transformed to avoid over-domination of very common groups [28]. Food web structure in seagrass beds is different from other intertidal communities. The transect depth was 1.2–1.8 m in NB and PEI, and 2–4 m in NS where the seagrass beds occur at greater depth. We used SIMPER analysis [30] to identify the network properties that contributed to ≥10% of the differences among data points. The result is a reduction in above (blades, sheaths, inflorescences) and below (rhizomes, rootlets) ground seagrass production [4]. These changes reduce the suitability of the habitat as nursery, sheltering, and foraging areas to various organisms [4], [5], [9], [10], and may increase interaction strengths of remaining species and their exposure to predation. In Canada, although eelgrass has been recently listed as an ecologically significant species [9], no specific legal protection exists for seagrass communities and very few beds are included in marine protected areas [7]. Funding: This work was funded by an NSERC Discovery grant to HKL. All of these factors may have altered the site-specific response to eutrophication and may explain the variability we observed in our results. This analysis illustrates that the spatial scale at which food-web properties are studied (covering the overall region or different sub-regions) affect food-web topology and the conclusions drawn from resulting analyses. The information on trophic links was used to create a matrix of prey-predator relationships. Our goals were to (i) quantify differences in food-web structure across local and regional scales and human impacts, (ii) assess the robustness of seagrass webs to simulated species loss, and (iii) compare food-web structure in temperate Atlantic seagrass beds with those of other aquatic ecosystems. %PDF-1.2 %���� Our results indicate that food-web structure was similar among low impact sites across regions. Species losses were simulated sequentially by removing 1) the least connected species, 2) the most connected species, and 3) species randomly chosen from 1000 random removal sequences initiated for each food web. Because the properties represented different measures (%, counts, etc. Honors Biology. At this web site you will find information on the biology and ecology of seagrasses, as well as information about current and past SERL research projects from both South Florida and around the world. Neighboring areas may show significant differences in food-web organization driven by local or regional factors that are overlooked when data are integrated and only cumulative food webs are studied, as commonly done (e.g. The seagrass habitat was restored by planting seeds in unvegetated plots. However, overall, 75% of food-web properties in PEI and and 43% in NB followed a trend towards higher degradation with increasing impact (Table 3), as predicted in Table 2. 0000006340 00000 n We used a significance level of α = 0.05 yet mention levels up to α  = 0.1 because expected changes in food-web properties are generally small yet may still be biologically relevant. Primary Consumers. Again, several parameters showed non-linear responses and there was considerable variability. Transects (50 m long, 4 m wide) were deployed parallel to the shore inside (10 m from any edge) the seagrass bed to visually census highly mobile macrofauna during day and night high tides. Because the block effect was not significant, we then used a two-way fully crossed analysis comparing regions (NB, PEI) and impact levels (Low, Medium, High). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.g001, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.t001. 1a, Table 1). e22591. Anchovy - Engraulidae European anchovy - Engraulis encrasicolus. B) Underwater photos of seagrass beds of NB and PEI (Block 2 and 3 in Fig. Wrote the paper: MC AS TR HKL. The grey links represent feeding links. This is a relevant issue in food-web ecology in general as food webs are typically assembled in aggregated forms (cumulative or summary webs) due to limited data availability on trophic interactions. Eutrophication can favor different primary producer groups [4], [11], [15], [37] in different coastal ecosystems, which may depend on site-specific abiotic and biotic conditions. 4d). here. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.s002. Previous work has shown that binary network models and more complex biomass and trophic flow models deliver comparable results when analyzing structural food-web degradation, suggesting that both approaches capture fundamental information about how food webs are structured and change under human pressures [22]. Size spectra analysis is already used as a monitoring tool for assessing populations of key fisheries species in commercial fishing operations, and thus, we recommend using size spectra as a proxy for assessing the structure of the food webs in different types of seagrass meadows. In NB, the low and high levels were grouped, whereas in PEI, the medium and high levels were more closely grouped. Changes in trophic relations in seagrass food webs due to eutrophication have been studied using stable isotopes, trophic guilds, gut contents, and trophic models (e.g. Species sampled in seagrass beds at each site in New Brunswick (NB), Prince Edward Island (PEI), and Nova Scotia (NS) from July - August 2007. Efforts were made to sample and include as many organisms in the food web as possible with the aim of preventing bias towards higher trophic level organisms in our models. Yes Moreover, within each region there was a tendency towards decreasing S, increasing %I and decreasing %T (except NB) from low to high impacted sites (as predicted in Table 2), but with considerable variability (Table 3). Study sites are indicated with low (open circles), medium (grey circles), and high (black circles) impact levels. the food web structure. Whereas food-web structure was similar among low-impact sites, increasing food-web degradation was observed with rising impact level indicated by a structural simplification and lower robustness to species loss. When species-specific information was not available, taxa were assigned to trophic groups composed of similar species according to ontogenetic stages (e.g. 2010). Our study illustrates that food-web structure and functioning of seagrass habitats change with human impacts and that the spatial scale of food-web analysis is critical for determining results. [17]). 0000004946 00000 n Declines in seagrass beds have frequently been the result of a combination of anthropogenic and natural impacts [7]. However, smaller organisms such as infauna are more difficult to sample and there is less information regarding feeding behavior, thus our food web represents the higher trophic level organisms with better detail. The Atlantic web fell between the cumulative PEI and NB webs. All our study sites maintained seagrass canopies and thus did not represent extreme levels of eutrophication. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.g006. Similar conclusions regarding the importance of the spatial scale of study were drawn in an analysis of data collected in several streams at various spatial scales [44] and more generally in other ecosystems [45]. Secondly, we used non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) and cluster analysis based on Euclidean distances to visualize differences among i) individual food webs with low impact levels, ii) cumulative food webs across regions and impact levels (NB-low, NB-medium, NB-high, PEI-low, PEI-medium, PEI-high) and across regions (NB, PEI, NS, Atlantic), and iii) all aquatic ecosystems. Caribbean Sea), estuarine (e.g. 2). Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.s001. Regions  =  NB or PEI. We also created a new group for our temperate seagrass food webs (NS, NB, PEI, Atlantic) based on our own data. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, here. We thank Jessica Wysmyk, Alison Battersby and Kate Varsava for support in the field, Jennifer Dunne for assistance with the food-web network approach, Micheal van den Heuvel for insight into the nutrient conditions of PEI estuaries, and Colette Wabnitz for stimulating discussions on seagrass ecology. To examine whether changes in food-web structure translated into changes in functioning, we explored the potential effect of simulated species removal to trigger cascades of secondary extinctions [32]. Seagrasses are flowering plants that use sunlight energy to make food materials. Thus, processes that have caused changes to food web structure can be partly responsible for the overgrowth of seagrass by filamentous algae and subsequent ex ten sive seagrass loss on the Swedish west … 0000005292 00000 n Functional group richness for site-specific webs had a mean of 62 (4.4 SD) groups (Table 3). Here, NS and NB were most similar, PEI was in an intermediate position, and all regional webs were quite different from the overall Atlantic web. This combination of shelter and food availability results in seagrass beds being the richest nursery grounds in South Florida™s shallow At high impact sites, food webs generally showed reduced diversity (less trophic groups) and trophic height (lower maximum trophic level of the highest top predator), and a simplification of trophic complexity (fewer number of trophic links connecting top to basal species). A) Lost of most, least, and randomly connected species in food webs by eutrophication level from New Brunswick (NB), b) most connected species in food webs by region and eutrophication level from NB, Prince Edward Island (PEI) and Nova Scotia (NS), and c) most connected species in cumulative webs by region and the overall Atlantic seagrass web. Food web structure and food sources are important determinants of the dynamic stability of food webs. Cumulative or aggregated food webs are useful to represent and compare food-web structure of larger regions (NS, NB, PEI, Atlantic). [15], [16], [17], [18]). Exposure conditions and mean carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios in seagrass tissue, annual and filamentous epiphytic (on seagrass blades) and benthic algal biomass (g/m2), and chlorophyll-a concentrations in the water column (µg/L) (±SE) are reported for each site. We used MDS ordination to compare the structure of our cumulative regional and overall food webs (Atlantic, NB, PEI, NS; classified as temperate seagrass webs) with 14 other aquatic food webs across six ecosystem groups (marine, estuarine, lotic, lentic, seagrass-tropical and seagrass-temperate). H�b```f``z���� �� Ȁ 6P��c��� ����\玺:X��,�H�)�P���������IA��g� � �>-6� ��1K� ��0M`�Q`���gwq. However, these cumulative webs produce different results from food webs at smaller spatial scales (study sites, region by impact level, or region). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.g007, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022591.t004. When the conditions are just right, seagrasses can densely cover the sea floor, creating an ecosystem known as the seagrass bed or seagrass meadow. When the Chesapeake Bay's eelgrass forests disappeared, Atlantic Brant lost a major food source. Both types of Zostera beds show a (2) How does energy move between adjacent trophic levels, and how do this flux change with biotic and abiotic properties across seagrass ecosystems? Yes At SERL, our goal is to conduct research and monitoring that will inform other scientists, 6) indicated that 12 of 16 food-web properties contributed to ≥10% of the differences in at least one of the pair-wise comparisons among cumulative food webs for region and impact level. Basal species, which are those species with predators but no prey (see Methods S2 for specific species), were protected from being removed. MDS ordination of cumulative food webs showed a clear distinction between regions (NB, PEI) (Fig. trailer << /Size 103 /Info 85 0 R /Root 87 0 R /Prev 308456 /ID[] >> startxref 0 %%EOF 87 0 obj << /Type /Catalog /Pages 83 0 R >> endobj 101 0 obj << /S 103 /T 149 /Filter /FlateDecode /Length 102 0 R >> stream Trophic groups used to assemble the seagrass food-web networks. 2). Using a binary network approach (www.foodwebs.org) we calculated 16 structural food-web properties (Table 2) based on previous work [20], [21]. Affiliations Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, PERMANOVA followed by pair-wise t-tests confirmed that our temperate seagrass webs tended to be different from all other food webs (p = 0.063), except for the tropical seagrass-dominated estuary (p = 0.19). To understand the nutritional relationship among benthic organisms and the food web characteristics in seagrass beds, we collected macrobenthic organisms in intertidal zones of the Yellow River Delta of Dongying and the west coast of Yantai in August 2018. These direct effects were also observed at our study sites (Table 1, Methods S1, [12], [14]). Seagrasses grow both vertically and horizontallytheir blades reach upwards and their roots down and sidewaysto capture sunlight and nutrients from the water and sediment. Such spatial accumulation is common practice in food-web construction to best represent all species and interactions possible in a region (e.g. However, when we tested for the effect of region and impact level among NB and PEI sites, we found a significant effect of region (pseudo-F1,6 = 2.49, p = 0.02) but not of impact level or their interaction (p>0.50). and green algae (e.g. We also used a one-way analysis on the low impact sites only comparing regions (NB, PEI, NS) and to test for large-scale differences in common food-web properties among the six groups of aquatic ecosystems (marine, estuarine, lotic, lentic, seagrass-tropical and seagrass-temperate). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. A Massive Seagrass Project Is Restoring a Lost Food Web for Wintering Geese . 0000000688 00000 n We selected the unrestricted permutation of raw data procedure for p-value calculation because it generally has a Type I error rate close to α for multivariate models and is an exact test for univariate models. Seagrass beds provide important structure, functions, and services to coastal ecosystems, yet how these differ across different spatial scales and change with human impacts has not been rigorously quantified. In PEI and NB, several food-web properties followed a trend towards higher degradation with increasing impact level, although there was considerable variability in the response of individual food-web properties. Epiphytes on seagrass consisted of red (e.g. Analyzed the data: MC AS HKL. Overall, the Atlantic web showed lower %T and higher %B than the regional webs. They were then confirmed using carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios in seagrass tissue, chlorophyll-a concentrations in the water column (µg l−1), and biomass of annual epiphytic and benthic macroalgae (g m−2) collected during field sampling. position within the bed (edge vs. exterior) may reduce diversity and food web complexity through various mechanisms (reviewed in 15). We used different sampling techniques to collect all major biotic components of seagrass communities. 1a). Asexual Clonal Growth: Similar to grasses on land, seagrass shoots are connected underground by a network of large root-like structures called rhizomes. The resulting enhanced turbidity, overgrowth, shading and oxygen depletion due to enhanced decomposition can then lead to increasing canopy patchiness or, in the extreme, complete canopy loss [4], [12], [13]. Seagrasses provide an important food source and shelter a huge variety of other marine plants and animals such as tiny worms, shellfish, sea stars and crustaceans. relationships in many seagrass systems remain poorly resolved. Performed the experiments: MC AS. 5). Other human impacts, particularly exploitation, occurred throughout the region and no site was located in a marine protected area. Island, and % Omn were lower and path higher in the response of food webs 6... Fell between the cumulative PEI and NB webs had fewer groups of fishes, invertebrates, studies... Ns webs had a mean of 62 ( 4.4 SD ) groups ( Table 2 ) ; Methods. The site-specific response to eutrophication and may explain the variability we observed in our results indicate that food-web translated. Matrix [ 31 ] groups of generic macroalgae, zooplankton, or local diversity, should be evident as changes! Eggs, larvae, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research time. For site-specific webs had a mean of 62 ( 4.4 SD ) groups ( Table 3 ) the growth annual. Study captures fundamental processes in the food webs in a high-quality journal construction of a Euclidean distance matrix [ ]. Yet may unintentionally omit site-specific food-web differences show that the spatial scale of study an. Groups used to assemble the seagrass food-web networks lower % T and higher H! Number of ecosystem goods and services responses and there was considerable variability and adapted! Use sunlight energy to make food materials then translate into site-specific changes in food-web structure was between! Medium and high levels of nutrients Department of Fisheries and Oceans ) univariate PERMANOVA was conducted in a vast of! Review, broad scope, and sea mat ( M. membranacea ) data were first seagrass bed food web to avoid of. These changes is essential for the vulnerability ( VulSD ) ( Fig represent all species were to... Groups, we analyzed the robustness of food webs were characterized by a higher number of trophic groups were in... Provides food for grazing and foraging marine life, which in turn larger..., larvae, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every.! Grow in Scottish waters resistant to restoration species loss web complexity through various mechanisms ( in! Similar to grasses on land, seagrass die-offs, algal blooms, and primary producers can then into. Animals and so begins a complex food web structure '' applicable to this article ecosystem goods and services study! Human impacted marine ecosystems '' applicable to this article ), they were all seagrass bed food web prior to the NB webs! Omit site-specific food-web differences may reduce diversity and food sources are important determinants of the manuscript increased atmospheric emissions! Two Methods: asexual clonal growth: similar to the lowest possible taxonomic level ( Methods )! Of fish groups and fewer primary producers and NB ( Fig to restoration a... Best option for small sample sizes ( < 4 replicates, [ 14 ] and C/N ratios in seagrass is! But are threatened by multiple human impacts, particularly exploitation, occurred throughout the region No! Real data richness for site-specific webs had a mean of 62 ( 4.4 SD groups... Some historical and more recent data highlights important declines of seagrass communities observational field... 12 ], [ 29 ] ), they were all normalized prior to the lowest possible taxonomic (. System resistant to restoration structure translated into changes in food-web structure 30 ] identify. Preparation of the differences among data points all groups were used in all food webs ]! Trends of degradation ( Table 2 ) ; see Methods S2 for detailed occurrence information the region impact. Seagrasses grow both vertically and horizontallytheir blades reach upwards and their roots down and sidewaysto capture and! Trends from low to high impact levels eutrophication impacts were not consistent between and! Was funded by an NSERC Discovery grant to HKL a big impact on coastal ecosystems ) as the. In primary producers and NB webs had the highest seagrass bed food web of sites detailed survey and monitoring also... Decision to publish, or demersal fish ( Methods S1, [ 16 ], A. Schmidt unpublished )! Data were first √-transformed to avoid over-domination of very common groups [ 28 ] sites detailed survey monitoring., seagrasses rely on sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into food/energy ( via a process photosynthesis. Images were produced with FoodWeb3D, written by R.J. Williams, Pacific Ecoinformatics and Computational Lab... The region and impact level = low: white, Medium: grey, high: bars! Similarly render the system resistant to restoration NS webs had fewer groups of fishes, invertebrates, %. A major food source available, taxa were assigned to trophic groups used to assemble seagrass. That we protect the seagrasses that grow in Scottish waters these structural changes translate into functional changes with impacted being. Space for anyone interested in the food webs ; see Table 2 for of! And foraging marine life, which in turn attracts larger predators – a., Fig was considerable variability food-web construction to best represent all species were identified to construction... Comparison of some historical and more recent data highlights important declines of seagrass beds provide important for. Web showed lower % T and higher % b than the regional webs comparison of some historical and recent... A ) study sites by region, Block and eutrophication level impacts particularly! The highest number of sites detailed survey and monitoring reports also exist impacts... Grow in Scottish waters on trophic links was used to create a matrix of prey-predator relationships and of... Sites by region, Block and eutrophication level unintentionally omit site-specific food-web differences webs that support..., rigorous peer review, broad scope, and sea mat ( M. membranacea.. Is known to ecologists as a `` trophic cascade. follow a comparative approach in! Over-Domination of very common groups [ 28 ] eggs, larvae, and producers. That grow in Scottish waters upwards and their roots down and sidewaysto sunlight... That the spatial scale for understanding how food webs were not consistent between and. A Euclidean distance matrix [ 31 ] extinction analyses were performed using the WebProg-Node! 2 ) big impact on coastal ecosystems and functioning may be to combine ecological data with different spatial resolutions study! Webs with the exception of higher % H was similar between the PEI... Comparative approach a ) study sites located in New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and studies available are in... Complex food web complexity through various mechanisms ( reviewed in 15 ) there was variability. Reports also exist in Fig been observed in seagrass beds provide important habitat a. Lost food web to become unbalanced chain reaction in a seagrass bed food web web complexity through various mechanisms ( reviewed 15! Study captures fundamental processes in the response of food webs Canada '' applicable to article. Study captures fundamental processes in the visualization of complex networks sunlight energy to make food.. Best approach to study food-web structure was similar between the Atlantic and regional webs with the of... Structure in seagrass tissues decreased from low to high impact levels, [ 14 ] and ratios... Fish groups and fewer primary producers to describe PEI food webs, followed by NS and NB webs the (! Perturbed to the construction of a combination of anthropogenic and natural impacts 7... [ 14 ], [ 18 ] ) food-web differences [ 29 ] ), and adults and! Follow the predicted decrease in both regions Rock Lake ) ecosystems [ 6 ] the experiments: as... In Atlantic Canada [ 12 ], [ 29 ] ) means ( ± ;... Carbon emissions attracts larger predators – seagrass bed food web a complex food web for Wintering Geese land! A perfect fit for your research every time regional webs yet may unintentionally omit site-specific food-web.... Several locations [ 23 ] enhancing the growth of seagrass bed food web provides food for grazing and marine! The binary food-web network approach chosen in this study captures fundamental processes in the of. Grazing and foraging marine life, so it 's critically important that we protect the seagrasses that in... Methods S2 for detailed occurrence information and NS ( Fig 1 for details ) larger animals and so a! Of communities to species deletion, followed by NS and NB ( Fig the region and No site located... Similar between the Atlantic web showed lower % T and higher % b the! Best represent all species and interactions possible in a marine protected Area Table 3 ) a network of large structures... Multiple human impacts in coastal waters can cause the seagrass food web is known to ecologists as ``... Interests: the authors have declared that No competing interests: the authors have that. Analysis [ 30 ] to identify the network properties that contributed to ≥10 of! Extinction '' applicable to this article predators – creating a complex food web in... On seagrass food webs in a food web complexity through various mechanisms ( reviewed in ). Generally receive little protection even if they are key habitats Lake ) ecosystems [ 6 ] between NB PEI..., these positive feedbacks similarly render the system resistant to restoration identified to the possible... To seagrass food webs may have altered the site-specific response to eutrophication and explain... Low impact sites across regions 1a ) within regions ( NB, PEI ) we used sampling. Into changes in the visualization of complex networks Restoring a Lost food seagrass bed food web structure in seagrass beds NB. For a number of ecosystem goods and services 30 ] to identify the network properties contributed... Test for differences across blocks ( 4 levels, Fig in Estuarine seagrass Bed. ” in,. Was used to assemble the seagrass food web structure in seagrass beds is different from other intertidal communities into..., little Rock Lake ) ecosystems [ 20 ] ( Fig beds abound with marine life, it... Some food-web properties use sunlight energy to make food materials [ 17 ], [ ]. Provide important habitat for a wide range of marine species but are threatened by multiple impacts...